Microbial cellulose in the circular packaging economy: A critical review of production, functionalization, and techno-economic scale-up barriers

The global environmental crisis driven by fossil-based plastics requires a transition to sustainable, biodegradable packaging alternatives. Microbial cellulose (MC) has emerged as a high-performance biopolymer characterized by a unique nanofibrillar network and robust mechanical properties; however, its industrial adoption remains constrained by high production costs (US$ 8–15 kg -1 ) and scale-up challenges. This review provides a critical and quantitatively grounded assessment of the MC value chain, addressing the gap between laboratory-scale research and commercial viability. Evidence from the reviewed literature identifies valorizing agro-industrial residues and using SCOBY-based consortia as promising strategies to reduce culture-medium costs and improve process sustainability. Integrated evidence from Techno-Economic Analysis (TEA) and Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) studies indicates that MC-based materials would need cost reductions of approximately 69–83% to achieve economic parity with commodity plastics. The literature further highlights the development of active and intelligent packaging through MC-based composites incorporating materials such as PLA, PBAT, and bioactive agents, which have been reported to enhance barrier properties and functional performance. Analysis of the intellectual property landscape reveals a marked geographical concentration, with 55% of global patents originating in China, suggesting greater technological development and commercialization activity in Asia. Overall, the reviewed evidence supports a strategic pathway integrating sustainable feedstocks, optimized downstream processing, and innovation policies to advance the translation of MC toward competitive and circular packaging applications.