Labeling Theory: New Life and a Path Forward

This review centers on the development of labeling theory in criminology. Our core argument is that modifications to labeling theory in the past several decades have veered research away from the theory's core propositions. We extend this argument by presenting a three-part conceptual model of secondary deviance, defined as persistence in deviant behavior as a result of punishment. First, a subtheory of punishment and social exclusion explains institutional and interpersonal exclusion after punishment as the result of selection, separation, and stigma. Stigma manifests as rejection, withdrawal, and homophily. Second, deviant identity is reintroduced as the central motivating mechanism of secondary deviance. Its development involves the links between actual and reflected appraisals and the internalization of reflected appraisals into self-appraisals. Third, peer and community contexts are sources of variation in the effects of punishment on social exclusion and deviant identity. Researchers should give special attention to how these processes unfold within individuals and across life stages. Our model serves as a framework for advancing understanding of the mechanisms that drive criminogenic consequences of punishment.