How much climate-smart agriculture is enough? A dose-response analysis of technology adoption effects on farmer welfare in Ghana

Climate-smart agricultural technologies (CSAT) are promoted to enhance agricultural productivity and strengthen resilience to climate change. However, limited empirical evidence exists on the effects of adoption intensity, particularly when farmers adopt multiple technologies simultaneously. This study examines the effects of CSAT adoption intensity on maize yield and household asset accumulation in Ghana using survey data from 2,151 maize farmers. A dose–response model with Heckman selection is applied to address potential selection bias and estimate the causal effects of varying adoption levels. The findings show that farmers’ education, access to credit, extension services, and perceived drought significantly influence both the likelihood and intensity of CSAT adoption. Results reveal a U-shaped relationship between CSAT adoption intensity and maize yield, where yields initially decline but increase as adoption intensity rises. On average, higher CSAT adoption is associated with a 21% increase in maize yield. Similarly, CSAT intensity shows a nonlinear positive relationship with household asset accumulation, with an average 19.5% increase in assets. The results also indicate heterogeneous effects across farmers. Overall, higher CSAT adoption improves agricultural productivity and long-term household welfare, highlighting the need to strengthen extension services, expand credit access, and raise climate risk awareness to promote sustainable agricultural development.