Less Close but Same Display Rules: Norms for Emotional Expression in Online and Face-to-Face Interactions

Online meetings are increasingly used for work, social, and healthcare purposes, yet their emotional quality is unclear. We tested whether differences in perceived closeness, privacy and anonymity between online and face to face (F2F) interactions alter display rules—the norms governing emotional expression. Participants from Australia (N = 1339) and the United Kingdom (N = 1298) reported display rules for online and F2F interactions with a friend, co-worker, supervisor, GP, or psychologist/counsellor. Online interactions felt less close and comfortable and more anonymous, but display rules did not differ from F2F interactions, with Bayesian analyses strongly supporting the null. Closeness and anonymity predicted display rules only in some cases. Privacy did not, suggesting earlier privacy effects may reflect other factors, such as audience size. Social anxiety was an important predictor, and display rules differed clearly between countries. These findings refine display rule theory and support online platforms for professional and healthcare interactions.