Physicochemical characteristics, phytochemical, mineral composition, and antioxidant potential in Heterotrigona itama and Geniotrigona thoracica honey from Brunei Darussalam

The economic significance of stingless bee honey in tropical developing nations is attributed to its high antioxidant and medicinal properties. The Heterotrigona itama (H. itama) and Geniotrigona thoracica (G. thoracica) honey were harvested from four different locations with different conditions in Brunei Darussalam. The mineral elements and physicochemical properties of honey were characterised via Inductively Coupled Plasma Optical Emission Spectroscopy (ICP-OES), Attenuated Total Reflectance Fourier Transform Infrared (ATR-FTIR) and other standard methods. In addition, the antioxidant activities were evaluated using the 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) assay. H. itama honey (HI H4, 43.77% inhibition) exhibited the highest antioxidant activity among the samples. Darker H. itama honey is thicker and sweeter, with about 2% ash content, and its colour strongly correlated with high potassium, sodium, calcium, iron, zinc, and manganese. Meanwhile, G. thoracica honey is slightly more acidic, less viscous, and lighter in colour, with ash content lower than 1%. Potassium was predominantly detected, while microelements and toxic metals in honey are within permitted limits. Phytochemical screening of honey showed the presence of glycosides, phenols, tannins, terpenoids, and saponins. This research provides the first comprehensive insights into the physicochemical and phytochemical properties and mineral contents of both honeys from Brunei. It offers valuable insights for setting quality standards and supports the commercial development of stingless bee products.