Recent advances in carbon materials for energy storage applications: a comprehensive review of supercapacitors and lithium-ion batteries

With the growing demand for energy and rising environmental concerns, public interest in clean and sustainable energy sources has intensified. However, the intermittent supply of renewable energy highlights the critical importance of efficient energy storage technologies. Supercapacitors and lithium-ion batteries are widely regarded as promising next-generation storage systems owing to their excellent power and energy densities. This review provides a comprehensive overview of their energy storage mechanisms and the key parameters that govern device and electrode performance. In this context, carbon-based materials are highly valued as promising candidates due to their high conductivity, chemical stability, and porous structures. Carbon materials, ranging from conventional forms to advanced architectures and emerging carbon-related materials, are critically discussed to elucidate their mechanism–structure–performance relationships in supercapacitors and lithium-ion batteries. Their performance and structural requirements are further compared across the two energy-storage systems. This review highlights the potential of biomass-derived carbon for energy storage by identifying the mechanism-structure-performance correlation in carbonaceous electrode materials. To further optimise carbon nanomaterials for energy storage, strategies are being explored to enhance their electrochemical performances. Finally, practical considerations are discussed to facilitate the translation of carbon materials toward practical energy-storage applications.