Occupational exposure to cadmium in the European Union: Evidence from a scoping review on air monitoring and human biomonitoring data available (2010–2026)

Introduction Cadmium and its inorganic compounds are classified as Group 1 carcinogens, posing significant occupational health risks. The objective is to map and summarise occupational cadmium exposure data in European Union (EU) member states. Method s: A scoping review of studies published between 2010 and 2026 was conducted by searching PubMed, Scopus, and Web of Science. Studies were eligible if they reported quantitative air monitoring and/or human biomonitoring (HBM) data on occupational cadmium exposure in EU member states. Screening was conducted independently by two authors using a systematic review management platform. Results Forty-four studies were included, representing more than 8209 workers across 4 3 occupations in 12 EU member states. Five studies reported personal and/or static air sampling data, eight studies reported data on both air sampling and biomonitoring, and 31 studies presented biomonitoring data only. Most of the studies were from Italy (24%) and Poland (22%). Cadmium concentrations above the limits set by Directive (2019)/838/EU were reported in three studies considering the occupational exposure limit (OEL) for cadmium inhalable fraction in the EU (0.004 mg/m 3 ), and in two studies considering the biological limit value for urinary cadmium (2 μg/g creatinine). Cadmium exposure levels varied considerably within studies, across occupations, sectors and regions. Conclusions Exceedances of current EU OELs were documented across EU member states and sectors and the 2027 upcoming reduction of this OEL will emphasise this finding. The findings also highlight the variability of biomonitoring matrices used, sampling strategies, and reporting detail, underscoring the need for harmonised exposure assessment protocols across the EU.