Structural barriers and opportunities for clean cooking transition in Nepal using PESTEL and SWOT analyses

Universal access to clean cooking energy is a prerequisite for achieving multiple Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), yet the clean cooking transition (CCT) in Nepal is constrained by complex socio-economic and political dynamics. This study applies PESTEL and SWOT frameworks to evaluate progress and barriers, drawing on national policy documents, a structured household survey ( n = 200), and focus group discussions conducted across four districts: Chitwan, Sarlahi, Kavrepalanchowk, and Rasuwa. Despite strong political commitment through instruments such as the Constitution of Nepal and the Renewable Energy Subsidy Policy, advancement has been limited. Biomass dependence declined from 87.3% in 2000 to 59.8% in 2022, while LPG adoption rose from 5% to 38.6%, driven mainly by urbanization and income growth rather than targeted policy, and inflation and rural–urban disparities have restricted equitable access. Subsidies and donor programs have reduced upfront costs but failed to ensure sustained use due to weak governance, political instability, inadequate maintenance systems, and unreliable electricity supply. Awareness of indoor air pollution (IAP) risks has risen even as cultural preferences, gendered decision-making, and financial barriers continue to constrain adoption. The continued reliance on biomass in the country contributes to deforestation, climate emissions, and approximately 24,000 annual deaths in Nepal from IAP, while fragmented and weakly enforced regulations undermine progress. SWOT analysis highlights clean electricity potential and donor engagement as strengths, and affordability gaps, aid dependency, and political instability as critical threats. Stronger governance, locally adapted technologies and sustained investment are essential for an inclusive and sustainable CCT that advances SDG 3, 5, 7, 10 and 13.