The Hand-Proximity Effect in Virtual Learning: How Interaction Design Influences Knowledge Acquisition

Although virtual simulation platforms are widely used in education, they often lack integration with embodied cognition theory. The hand-proximity effect remains underexplored in VR, and how VR design elements mediate it to support higher-order knowledge acquisition is unclear. We manipulated interaction mode, text-hand distance, and virtual hand appearance across three knowledge domains. Results showed that for factual and conceptual learning, neither interaction mode nor text-hand distance significantly affected learning performance. 3D interaction enhanced VR presence but was associated with greater cognitive pressure when combined with far-hand text (p=0.040); anchoring text near the virtual hand mitigated cognitive pressure and improved readability (p=0.005). For procedural learning, realistic human hand models significantly improved learning performance compared to standard cursors (p=0.044). These findings empirically validate embodied cognition in VR and yield guidelines: anchor instructional text in peripersonal space for conceptual learning and use realistic human hand avatars for procedural training.