Visual–Semantic Processing and Reading Comprehension in Chinese Deaf and Hard-of-Hearing Students: Roles of Updating, Semantic Radical Awareness, and Daily Sign Language Use

Reading comprehension among deaf and hard-of-hearing (DHH) students may depend partly on how semantic information embedded in Chinese characters is used. This cross-sectional study examined associations among working-memory updating, semantic and phonetic radical awareness, and reading comprehension, with exploratory comparisons across broad communication-mode groups. Fifty-two DHH middle school students completed a 2-back task, radical-awareness measures, along with grade-specific reading tests. Reading scores were standardized within grade; balanced 2-back accuracy served as the updating index. Parallel and conditional indirect-association models were estimated with 5000 bootstrap resamples. Updating was positively associated with both types of radical awareness but showed no significant total or direct association with reading comprehension. Semantic radical awareness was positively associated with reading comprehension and showed a significant specific statistical indirect association between updating and reading comprehension. The specific indirect association via phonetic radical awareness was not significant, whereas the contrast between the two specific indirect associations was significant. Exploratory moderation analyses indicated stronger associations among students who reported daily sign language use. Overall, these findings provide preliminary evidence of associations between visual–semantic processing, updating, communication mode, and reading comprehension among DHH students, and may inform instruction aimed at supporting their reading comprehension.