Integrated melissopalynological and phenolic profiling reveals antioxidant and antimicrobial potential of Turkish honeys

This study provides a comprehensive characterization of 23 Turkish honey samples through an integrated approach involving melissopalynological, chemical, antioxidant, and antimicrobial analyses. Fourteen phenolic compounds were quantified by HPLC, while total phenolic content (TPC), FRAP, and DPPH radical-scavenging assays were used to assess antioxidant-related properties. Antimicrobial activity was evaluated against six pathogenic microorganisms using minimum inhibitory concentration values. To explore multivariate patterns, the dataset was standardized using Z-score normalization and subjected to two-way hierarchical clustering using Euclidean distance and average linkage, visualized through a Viridis-scaled heatmap. The integrated analysis revealed distinct sample groupings and co-distribution patterns among phenolic constituents, antioxidant-related parameters, and antimicrobial MIC profiles, demonstrating substantial compositional and bioactivity heterogeneity among the studied honeys. Overall, this integrated approach provides a robust framework for characterizing Turkish honey diversity and underscores the importance of botanical origin in shaping phenolic composition and bioactivity.