Traditional bullying and cyberbullying among schoolchildren in Chile: prevalence, socio-economic inequalities, and school contextual factors

Bullying and cyberbullying are important public health concerns associated with adverse emotional, academic, and social outcomes among children and adolescents. However, evidence from Chile integrating traditional bullying, cyberbullying, socio-economic inequalities, and school contextual factors remains limited. This cross-sectional study included 2,775 Chilean students from 4th to 8th grade attending schools from different socio-economic backgrounds. Traditional bullying victimization and perpetration were assessed using the Olweus Bully/Victim Questionnaire-Revised (OBVQ-R), whereas cyberbullying was assessed using the Internet Experiences Questionnaire (IEQ). Traditional bullying involvement was defined as behaviors occurring at least 2–3 times per month. Cyberbullying indicators were defined as reporting at least one cyberbullying episode during the school year. School climate and school belonging were additionally assessed. Prevalence estimates and 95% confidence intervals (95% CIs) were calculated using the Wilson method. Factors associated with bullying involvement were examined using adjusted logistic regression models with generalized estimating equations accounting for clustering by school. Frequent traditional bullying victimization was reported by 20.3% of students, whereas 8.6% reported perpetration. Regarding bullying roles, 15.4% were classified as victim-only, 3.8% as perpetrator-only, and 4.7% as bully-victims. Verbal ridicule/teasing, rumor spreading, and social exclusion were the most prevalent forms of bullying. Boys, younger students, and students attending low socio-economic status (SES) schools showed higher levels of bullying involvement. Cybervictimization and cyberperpetration measured with the IEQ were reported by 8.6% and 4.7% of students, respectively, yielding substantially higher prevalence estimates than the cyberbullying item embedded within the OBVQ-R. More positive school climate and stronger school belonging were consistently associated with lower odds of traditional bullying and cyberbullying involvement. Traditional bullying and cyberbullying are common among Chilean schoolchildren and show important differences according to sex, grade, socio-economic status, and school contextual factors. Verbal and relational forms of bullying were the most frequent. Cyberbullying prevalence varied substantially according to measurement strategy, highlighting the importance of using dedicated instruments to assess online aggression. School climate and school belonging emerged as potentially modifiable protective factors relevant for school-based bullying prevention initiatives.