Goal-Direction Patterns in Amputee Football: Associations with Goalkeeper Missing-Arm Side and Shot Characteristics

Background and Aim: Goalkeeper performance relies on bilateral upper-limb function. In amputee football, unilateral upper-limb absence asymmetrically reduces the defendable area, creating a task-specific biomechanical constraint. This study aimed to examine goal-direction patterns relative to the goalkeeper’s missing-arm side and their associations with shot characteristics. Methods: We analyzed 474 goals from 115 matches (35 teams) in the 2021 European Championship and 2022 World Cup. Video recordings were coded by three analysts (Cohen’s Kappa = 0.94). Logistic regression with cluster-robust standard errors was applied to 431 goals, accounting for within-match tactical clustering. The outcome was shot direction toward the goalkeeper’s missing-arm side. Results: Approximately 52.9% of goals targeted the missing-arm side. Shot zone was the strongest predictor: center shots (OR = 0.39, 95% CI: 0.21–0.76, FDR-adjusted p = 0.012) and opposite-side shots (OR = 0.18, 95% CI: 0.08–0.40, FDR-adjusted p = 0.001) showed 61% and 82% reduced likelihood, respectively, compared to same-side shots. High shots were twice as likely as low shots to target the missing-arm side (OR = 2.06, 95% CI: 1.32–3.21, FDR-adjusted p = 0.009). These may be consistent with trajectory-dependent differences in the challenges faced by goalkeepers with anatomical asymmetry. Conclusions: Shot zone and height were associated with goal-direction patterns relative to the goalkeeper’s missing-arm side. Because only scored goals were analyzed, these findings do not establish greater scoring vulnerability on the missing-arm side or deliberate tactical exploitation of anatomical asymmetry.