Optimizing ecological restoration patterns and types in the Qilian Mountains: Balancing local, regional, and global benefits

While extensive ecological restoration has been implemented in the Qilian Mountains (QLM), the lack of systematic planning may compromise restoration effectiveness. In this study, we quantified seven key ecosystem services (ESs), including food production (FP), water yield (WY), soil conservation (SC), sand fixation (SF), carbon sequestration (CS), habitat quality (HQ), and tourism (TS), and analyzed their trade-offs and synergies. We further identified potential restoration areas and restoration types, developed restoration scenarios based on ES relationships, and determined the priority restoration patterns under each scenario. The results showed strong synergies between FP and TS, as well as between CS and HQ, whereas WY, SC, and SF exhibited weak correlations with other ESs. Based on these relationships, five restoration scenarios were established: Scenario 1 prioritized local ESs (FP and TS); Scenarios 2–4 emphasized regional ESs (WY, SC, and SF, respectively); and Scenario 5 focused on global ESs (CS and HQ). Scenario 1 substantially reduced HQ and regional ESs, whereas the regional ES-oriented scenarios achieved a more balanced enhancement of multiple ESs. Among them, Scenario 3 improved SC while simultaneously enhancing CS and HQ. Scenario 5 maximized CS, HQ, and total ES value, but significantly reduced local ESs. These findings indicate that restoration strategies should be tailored to stakeholder priorities and regional development goals. Overall, this study provides practical guidance for ecological restoration planning and contributes to optimizing restoration patterns and enhancing ES provision in the QLM.