From community to individual practice: the transformation of harambee and voluntary labour in Kenya

In Kenya, harambee – meaning ‘pull together’ in Kiswahili – was central to the rhetoric and practice of local development since independence. Communities contributed funds and labour for local development projects, such as schools, health centres and water projects, after which the state would assist with the running costs. The voluntary labour of citizens thus became a cornerstone of state development. However, from the 1980s, politicians increasingly funded harambee projects, shifting the onus from the community to politicians and making harambee a tool for political patronage. Drawing on 366 interviews with rural citizens and community leaders, I argue that the practice of harambee has become increasingly privatised in the contemporary period, used to raise money for individuals’ school fees, funerals or hospital bills rather than community projects. This individualisation of harambee is based on a spirit of reciprocity, which often excludes marginalised members of the community. Moreover, new practices of harambee mean that the community-based mobilisation of voluntary labour has been replaced by localised self-help groups and the state mobilisation of committee volunteers. This changing landscape of harambee and voluntary labour in Kenya has implications for who is called on to volunteer and who benefits from that voluntary labour.