Path Dependencies in Construction 3D Printing Adoption: A Comparative Interpretive Structural Modelling Study of India and Australia

Construction 3D printing (C3DP) is increasingly viewed as a transformative construction technology that can reduce material waste, shorten project timelines, enable geometric complexity, and support low-carbon material strategies. However, its large-scale deployment remains limited and uneven across contexts. This study examines barriers to C3DP adoption in India and Australia through 17 semi-structured expert interviews (8 from India, 9 from Australia) involving stakeholders from academia, industry, and government. Using thematic content analysis and Pareto prioritisation, barriers were grouped into six domains, policy, economic, social, technological, environmental, and legal, with the “vital few” factors accounting for ~80% of influence identified. Findings reveal that institutional barriers, particularly the absence of standards, certification pathways, and insurer-recognised liability frameworks, are the most significant constraints in both countries. Economic barriers (high capital costs, uncertain return on investment) and technological barriers (skill shortages and lack of performance-validated QA/QC protocols) also rank highly. Contextual differences are evident: in India, regulatory fragmentation, material variability, and cultural reliance on masonry limit adoption; in Australia, risk-governance norms, procurement conservatism, and strict compliance dominate. Overall, C3DP adoption is framed as a socio-technical transition rather than purely technological diffusion.