The German emotion beliefs questionnaire: factorial validity, measurement invariance, and descriptive reference values in a population-representative sample

Background Beliefs about emotions are considered a central mechanism of emotion regulation and mental health [1]. The 16-item Emotion Beliefs Questionnaire (EBQ; [2]) assesses beliefs about the usefulness and controllability of positive and negative emotions. While the original study supported a three-factor model, subsequent population-based studies favored the theoretically proposed four-factor structure. Although two German-language adaptations exist, neither has been validated in a population-representative sample, and descriptive reference values, evidence for measurement invariance across key sociodemographic groups, and systematic investigations of sociodemographic correlates of emotion beliefs are still lacking. Methods The German version of the EBQ [3] was administered to a representative sample of the German general population ( N = 2368; mean age = 50.3; SD = 17.13; range: 18–93; 44.7% men, 55.2% women). Confirmatory factor analyses (MLR) were conducted to compare competing three- and four-factor models. Measurement invariance across gender, age, and educational level was examined and descriptive reference values were calculated. Results Although the four-factor model fit better than the three-factor solution on all indices examined, the two controllability factors were very highly correlated ( r = .90) and showed limited discriminant validity, indicating a largely valence-independent controllability dimension. Bifactor analyses supported interpretation of the total score (ω_H = 0.792, ECV = 0.603), and the EBQ further demonstrated good psychometric properties. Measurement invariance was supported up to the strict level across age and gender, and approximately at the scalar level across education. Educational attainment showed the most consistent associations with emotion beliefs across the total score and all subscales. Descriptive percentile reference values are provided by age group and gender. Conclusions The German EBQ demonstrated satisfactory psychometric properties in a representative adult sample. Population-based descriptive reference values may facilitate research comparisons and preliminary clinical contextualization of individual scores. The findings support a largely valence-independent controllability dimension and highlight educational attainment as a consistent sociodemographic correlate of emotion beliefs.