Language, Power and Religious Freedom: A Critical Discourse Analysis of CPC-Related Reports on Nigeria

This study examined how language constructs Nigeria’s image in Country of Particular Concern (CPC) and related religious-freedom reports issued between 2019 and 2025. It investigated the lexical choices, modality, naming practices, and transitivity patterns through which Nigeria, its government, religious communities, and non-state actors were represented. The study adopted Fairclough’s three-dimensional model of Critical Discourse Analysis, complemented by van Dijk’s socio-cognitive approach and informed by Hallidayan transitivity analysis. Data comprised nine purposively selected documents from the United States Commission on International Religious Freedom, the U.S. Department of State, Congress, and selected advocacy organisations. Qualitative textual analysis was supported by descriptive lexical frequency counts and illustrative clause-level analysis. The findings revealed register-based differences in lexical intensity, uneven deployment of epistemic hedging, and asymmetrical naming and agency attribution. Non-state armed groups were identified more specifically as perpetrators of violence, whereas the Nigerian state was frequently represented through broad institutional labels associated with responsibility or toleration. Institutional actors also dominated evaluative discourse, while victims appeared predominantly as affected participants. The wider reporting discourse foregrounded religious-persecution narratives, particularly Christian victimisation, despite evidence of broader religious and security complexities. The study concludes that CPC reporting reflects unequal discursive power relations with implications for Nigeria’s international representation and diplomatic engagement.