Labor transformation and sustainability risks in smallholder farm households: a scoping review from Indonesia

Labor transformation in smallholder farming households has become a critical yet underexplored dimension of agricultural sustainability, particularly in developing countries. This scoping review examines global research on labor transformation and its implications for agricultural sustainability, with a particular focus on Indonesia. Using the Arksey and O’Malley framework, the study integrates bibliometric analysis (VOSviewer) and thematic analysis (NVivo) to identify major research patterns and conceptual gaps in the literature. The findings reveal four major thematic clusters and a persistent dominance of productivity-oriented perspectives, with limited attention to socio-cultural and intergenerational dimensions. The review also demonstrates a structural disconnection between labor transformation and sustainability research, alongside a geographical bias that underrepresents Southeast Asia. Evidence from Indonesia indicates that youth out-migration, the feminization of agriculture, and uneven mechanization are reshaping household labor structures and generating new sustainability risks. This study contributes to the literature by reconceptualizing labor transformation as a structural driver of socio-ecological resilience rather than merely an economic adjustment. It further provides an integrative perspective linking labor dynamics with sustainability outcomes while identifying key research gaps and policy priorities for strengthening the resilience of smallholder farming systems.