Biochemical and Nano-Biosensor-Based Strategies for Rapid Detection of Food Contaminants: Current Advances, Challenges and Future Perspectives

Food safety is an essential component of public health, food security and sustainable development. Food may become contaminated with pathogenic microorganisms, pesticide residues, veterinary drug residues, heavy metals, mycotoxins, environmental pollutants and adulterants at different stages of production, processing, storage and distribution. The biochemical consequences of exposure to these hazards include oxidative stress, enzyme inhibition, disruption of cellular metabolism, genotoxicity and alterations in physiological functions. Consequently, sensitive, selective, rapid and reliable analytical approaches are required for early identification of food contaminants. Biochemistry provides the molecular foundation for several modern food-safety technologies, including enzyme-based assays, immunoassays, nucleic-acid-based detection, aptamer-based recognition, biosensors and biomarker analysis. Conventional methods such as chromatography and mass spectrometry provide high sensitivity and confirmatory capability, whereas biosensor-based approaches offer opportunities for rapid screening and on-site detection. Integration of nanotechnology with biosensing platforms can further enhance analytical performance through increased surface area, improved signal amplification and enhanced recognition efficiency. Electrochemical, optical, fluorescence, colorimetric and surface-enhanced Raman-based systems have been investigated for the detection of pathogens, pesticides, mycotoxins, heavy metals, antibiotics and other food contaminants This review discusses the biochemical basis of food contamination, major classes of food hazards, conventional and advanced analytical approaches, and the emerging role of nano-enabled biosensors in food-safety monitoring. Particular emphasis is placed on enzymes, antibodies, aptamers, nucleic acids, electrochemical transduction and nanomaterials. Challenges associated with food-matrix interference, validation, reproducibility, cost, regulatory acceptance and commercialization are also considered. Integrating biochemistry with analytical science, biotechnology and nanotechnology can contribute to rapid and accessible food-safety monitoring systems and support the broader goal of safe food, healthy people and a sustainable future.