Higher-order thinking skills in STEM education: A systematic review of HOTS constructs, assessment methods, and chatgpt-assisted coding

Higher-order thinking skills (HOTS) are important learning outcomes in STEM education, but their assessment has not been systematically synthesized. This study reviewed 88 empirical studies published between 2003 and 2025. For the first research question, two human researchers independently coded HOTS-related constructs from assessment instruments and evidence sources, synthesized assessment methods, and examined patterns across STEM domains. For the second research question, we explored ChatGPT’s feasibility on two structured coding tasks: classifying research participants and categorizing research methods. The six most frequently identified HOTS-related constructs were problem solving, analyzing, evaluating, critical thinking, creating, and creativity. Researcher-developed instruments were the most frequently used assessment method, followed by rubric-based performance assessments, validated scales, and qualitative analyses; standardized tests were used less frequently. HOTS emphases varied across STEM domains. ChatGPT supported the preliminary classification of research participants and research methods, but the latter still required human verification.