Community perceptions and practices of household solid-waste separation in informal settlements along the Nullah Leh, Rawalpindi, Pakistan: a convergent mixed-methods study

Background. Source separation of household solid waste underpins sustainable waste management but remains uncommon in low-income, peri-urban South Asian settlements, and evidence on why is limited for Pakistan. This study examined the practices, determinants and perceived barriers to household waste separation in informal settlements along the Nullah Leh, Rawalpindi. Methods. A convergent mixed methods design was used. A 38-item, pilot tested questionnaire was administered to 357 household heads, covering sociodemographic characteristics, waste handling practices, service access and theory based behavioural items (five-point Likert scales). Multi item indices were assessed with Cronbach’s alpha and related to sociodemographic factors using Mann Whitney and Kruskal Wallis tests; the intention to segregate was modelled by multivariable logistic regression. Five gender stratified focus group discussions (28 participants) were analysed by Braun and Clarke’s reflexive thematic analysis. The two strands were integrated using a joint display. Results. Awareness was moderate to high (59.1% agreed separation is useful; 70.6% knew what it is), yet disposal occurred entirely through unmanaged channels open dumping (49.6%), burning (27.7%) and dumping into the Nullah (22.7%) with 27.7% lacking regular collection and no separation scheme available. The subjective norms index (α = 0.69) was associated with education, occupation, household size and income (p < 0.001; ε² = 0.10–0.15); attitude and perceived control indices had low reliability (α = 0.39 and 0.46; exploratory). In multivariable analysis, intention to segregate was independently associated with knowledge (adjusted odds ratio 3.50, 95% CI 2.07–5.93) and collection access (1.92, 1.13–3.25), not with sociodemographic factors or bin proximity. Five themes Practices, Cultural beliefs, Behavioural patterns, Perceived barriers and Motivators explained the awareness practice gap: absent infrastructure, unpredictable collection, perceived futility, time and cost, and the gendered, low status framing of waste work. Schoolchildren, lady health workers, religious leaders, small incentives and social recognition were identified as credible levers for change. Conclusions. Awareness alone does not translate into practice. Sustained separation will require pairing infrastructure (colour coded bins, reliable collection) with culturally grounded, gender sensitive behaviour change delivered through trusted community channels, offering transferable guidance for similar low resource urban settings. Trial registration Clinical trial number: not applicable.