Augmenting Presence and Performance: Audio and Visual Scaffolding in Virtual Reality Racing

This study examined how scaffolding modality influences presence and performance in an immersive virtual reality (I-VR) racing task. Grounded in extended and augmented cognition, scaffolding was conceptualized as real-time guidance that embeds task-relevant information within the environment. Using a 3 × 2 × 2 mixed factorial design, 111 participants completed trials under an audio co-pilot (ACP), visual co-pilot (VCP), or control. VCP provided color-coded cues, while ACP delivered just-in-time verbal instructions. Presence (Place and Plausibility Illusion) and performance (lap time, completion) were assessed. Performance improved across trials; lap times did not differ reliably during acquisition, though ACP showed a directional transfer advantage. Presence did not vary by condition or phase and was unrelated to performance. Crash outcomes diverged at transfer: after guidance removal, visual-scaffolding participants showed higher crash rates than auditory or control participants. Findings highlight how external cognitive supports can differentially influence learning, with implications for learning sciences, 4E cognition, and I-VR design.