The Early Origins of Biological Aging: Maternal Income, Education, and DNA Methylation Patterns at Ages 9–15

Maternal income at birth predicts children's epigenetic aging more strongly than later income. Children of college-educated mothers show lower epigenetic age acceleration at ages 9 and 15. Socioeconomic gaps differ by epigenetic clock: PhenoAge attenuates, Dunedin-PACE holds, and GrimAge grows by 15. Girls with faster epigenetic aging at age 9 experience menarche earlier. Higher GrimAge at age 9 predicts slower height growth between 9 and 15.