Heritage Russian in Germany and the United States: Media Consumption and Language Proficiency Among G1.75 and G2 Bilinguals

Aims and Objectives: This study investigates the relationship between heritage language (HL) media engagement and self-rated Russian oral proficiency among bilingual heritage speakers in Germany and the United States. Adopting a fine-grained generational approach, we examine differences between Generation 1.75 (G1.75; immigrated during early childhood) and Generation 2 (G2; born in the host society). Methodology: A total of 122 heritage Russian speakers (57 in Germany, 65 in the United States; ages 14–36) completed an online questionnaire assessing demographic background, self-rated HL comprehension and production, and frequency of media use across writing, reading, audio, and video. Participants were divided into G1.75 and G2 generational groups across countries. Data and Analysis: Mixed-design ANOVAs separately examined oral and written HL proficiency and media consumption across between- and within-subject factors. Linear mixed-effects models evaluated the predictive role of media consumption on oral Russian proficiency, accounting for generation and modality differences. Additional analyses examined separately whether media engagement similarly predicted written HL proficiency. Findings: G2 participants showed slightly higher HL proficiency than G1.75, with comprehension exceeding production across all groups. Writing emerged as the strongest predictor of proficiency, followed by audio and video; reading had weaker effects. Media effects were stronger and more uniform in Germany and more variable in the United States, reflecting differing sociolinguistic contexts. Originality: The study provides novel empirical evidence on early bilinguals whose preschool HL development occurred across different migration contexts, focusing specifically on G1.75 as a distinct immigrant generation that is often conflated with G2. It also systematically examines the role of media consumption as a predictor of HL proficiency. Implications: These findings contribute to HL research by showing how literacy-driven media engagement supports HL maintenance, particularly in contexts with limited formal instruction, and by highlighting the role of semi-generational and contextual factors in HL development.