Borders Make Markets: Why Enforcement Cannot Solve a Problem It Creates:

This study examines migrant smuggling as a governance-induced phenomenon, challenging conventional approaches that frame it primarily as a criminal activity. It argues that restrictive migration policies and the closure of legal migration pathways generate demand for smuggling services, making states central to the conditions that sustain these markets. The study highlights the limitations of enforcement-led responses, which target smugglers without addressing the structural factors driving demand. It further distinguishes between illegality and social legitimacy, demonstrating how facilitated migration, despite being prohibited by law, may be perceived as legitimate or necessary by affected communities. The study calls for a shift from criminalisation-focused approaches towards migration governance that recognises the relationship between state policies, mobility restrictions and the persistence of migrant smuggling.