Biofilm Dispersal: From Candida albicans to Emerging Concepts Across Fungal Pathogens

Purpose of the Review Biofilm formation is a major adaptation of fungal pathogens that promotes persistence, immune evasion, and tolerance to antifungal therapy. Yet, despite its importance to the biofilm lifecycle, the mechanisms governing the release of cells from fungal biofilms remain poorly understood. This review examines current knowledge of fungal biofilm dispersal, with particular emphasis on the disparity between the extensive mechanistic literature in Candida albicans and the limited understanding of dispersal in other clinically important fungi. Recent Findings In C. albicans , dispersal is a regulated process that generates predominantly yeast-form cells with transcriptional and phenotypic properties distinct from both biofilm-resident and conventional planktonic populations. These cells exhibit enhanced traits associated with adhesion, filamentation, host-cell damage, and virulence, and several molecular, cellular, and environmental factors have been implicated in regulating their production and release. In contrast, evidence for regulated dispersal in non- albicans Candida species and other fungal pathogens remains sparse. Studies of Candida auris (syn. Candidozyma auris ), Aspergillus fumigatus , and Scedosporium and Lomentospora species demonstrate that cells can be released from fungal biofilms and may exhibit distinct physiological properties, but whether these processes are mechanistically analogous to C. albicans dispersal remains unclear. Summary Biofilm dispersal is an understudied component of the fungal biofilm lifecycle. C. albicans currently provides the strongest model for regulated fungal dispersal, but cell release alone should not be assumed to represent an equivalent developmental process across fungal species. Defining the mechanisms, cellular states, and biological consequences of biofilm cell release across diverse fungi will be essential for determining which features of dispersal are broadly shared and which reflect species-specific strategies.