Applying lessons from digital and gamified learning to the educational metaverse: a systematic review

The metaverse, an immersive and persistent virtual environment, presents emerging opportunities for educational innovation. As a technology still in early development, understanding its potential requires examining adjacent, more established fields. This systematic review synthesises literature on online learning and gamified education to extrapolate key benefits, challenges, and implications for metaverse-based learning. Following the PRISMA protocol, we searched IEEE Xplore and Scopus databases, yielding a final sample of 92 articles published between 1981 and 2023. The review addresses four research questions concerning learner attitudes, learning outcomes, implementation challenges, and skill development. Findings indicate that while learners generally hold positive attitudes toward technology-enhanced learning, outcomes are mediated by factors such as digital literacy and instructional design. Also, online learning promotes self-directed, autonomous study but often lacks meaningful social interaction. Implementation challenges include infrastructure limitations, data privacy concerns, and the need for educator training. Gamified approaches, particularly within immersive environments, demonstrate potential for enhancing engagement, collaboration, and the development of problem-solving and critical thinking skills. Based on these findings, we propose the Metaverse-Based Gamified Learning (MBGL) Model, a conceptual framework linking immersive affordances, gamification mechanics, and 21st-century skill outcomes. This review contributes to the emerging discourse on educational applications of the metaverse and provides direction for future empirical research.