From ore to olivine: Sustainable production pathways for iron-manganese phosphate cathodes in lithium-ion batteries

Lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) have captured a large share of the automotive market in recent decades, driven primarily by strong performance, cost-effectiveness, and raw material abundance. These factors motivate this comprehensive review of lithium iron (manganese) phosphate cathodes, spanning the pathway from mined raw materials to finished LIBs. This review examines abundant mineral resources of lithium, iron, and manganese and outlines challenges associated with conventional and modified extraction methods. Further, we describe the production of battery-grade precursors, including iron phosphate, iron sulfate, iron oxalate, manganese phosphate, and manganese sulfate, and assess how synthesis routes influence purity, particle size, morphology, and the resulting electrochemical performance of the cathodes. This review addresses remaining limitations and potential modifications for improving cathode performance while also considering economic and geopolitical aspects to provide researchers with a comprehensive overview of cathode production, associated challenges, and current modification strategies.