Language as an Evolutionary Advantage in Neanderthals and Sapiens

This paper examines the evolution of language in the human lineage, assessing whether Neanderthals possessed linguistic abilities comparable to those of Homo sapiens and exploring the potential role of language and cumulative culture in the demographic and evolutionary divergence of the two lineages. It presents an interdisciplinary review of research on cultural evolution, social cognition, and theory of mind, integrating these perspectives with genetic, neuroanatomical, endocranial, osteological, auditory, and paleoecological evidence. Particular attention is given to the role of FOXP2 and corticostriatal circuits, brain organization associated with semantic control, the morphology of the hyoid bone and cochlea, the thoracic neural canal, and estimates of population size and vulnerability to climatic change. Overall, the evidence reviewed is consistent with Neanderthals having possessed speech and substantial linguistic capacities, although it does not establish whether their language was comparable in complexity to that of H. sapiens. The paper further proposes that differences in population size and social connectivity, together with opportunities for social learning and the cumulative transmission of innovations, may have influenced the cultural development and demographic expansion of both lineages, potentially contributing to their divergent evolutionary trajectories. Nevertheless, the scarcity and limited representativeness of the fossil record, the uncertainty surrounding functional inferences, and the genetic complexity of language preclude definitive conclusions. Accordingly, this paper should be understood as a provisional and exploratory framework intended not to settle the debate, but to integrate different lines of evidence, identify new research questions, and encourage further interdisciplinary investigation into the evolution of language and its role in hominin cultural development.