Graphene-family nanomaterials as pharmacological agents: mechanisms, therapeutic index and translational barriers

Graphene-family nanomaterials, including graphene oxide, reduced graphene oxide and graphene quantum dots, are under investigation as drug carriers and as materials with their own biological activity. Their pharmacological behaviour depends on the specific formulation. Lateral size, layer number, oxidation, defects, aggregation and surface coating govern protein adsorption, membrane contact, cellular uptake, redox and inflammatory signalling, organ distribution and clearance. The same features that raise drug loading or photothermal conversion can injure membranes, mitochondria and lysosomes and prolong retention in the liver, spleen or lung. Increases in anticancer activity in cell and animal studies often reflect a change in drug exposure rather than a direct action of the carrier, and many experiments omit unloaded-carrier and free-drug controls. Quantitative pharmacokinetics, repeated-dose toxicology and comparisons with established nanocarriers remain limited. No graphene formulation is an approved systemic medicine. This review connects defined material properties with molecular mechanisms and in vivo disposition, separates carrier effects from drug effects, and states the quality, pharmacological and safety evidence required before clinical development.