Heroic figures sustaining nation-states: A comparative analysis of textbooks in Japan, Kenya, and Syria

This study investigates how ‘heroes’ are depicted in primary school social studies textbooks in Japan, Kenya, and Syria to understand how to conceptualise and implement citizenship education in non-Western societies. Primary school social studies textbooks in the three countries were assessed for references to ‘heroes’ accompanied by images and descriptions of achievements. Heroes were analysed by historical period, gender, thematic content, year of study, and subject area. First, Japan and Syria emphasise individual achievements, whereas Kenya prioritises community-based interdependence. Second, Japan retains a strongly male-centred historical perspective, while Syrian textbooks include the relatively highest proportion of female heroes, although male figures remain predominant. Third, Kenya maintains an Afrocentric orientation while selecting its heroes, whereas authoritarian Syria glorifies modern presidents, a practice not observed in democratic Kenya and Japan. Findings suggest that textbooks function as tools for civic education, conveying distinct national imaginaries: Japan as ‘inherited and continuous’, Kenya as ‘collectively constituted’, and Syria as ‘protected through unity’. This demonstrates that historical awareness, political structures, and gender perspectives influence the depiction of heroes in textbooks. The heroes of each country serve as representations of their nation-building endeavours.