MXenes-based heterostructures versus carbon-based anodes for metal-ion batteries: performance benchmarks, commercial viability, and translation challenges

MXenes and MXenes-based heterostructures have emerged as promising anodes for metal-ion batteries because of their high electrical conductivity, tunable surface chemistry, and layered structures. However, their practical competitiveness must be evaluated against commercially established carbon-based anodes rather than theoretical capacity alone. This review develops a translation-oriented benchmarking framework that evaluates pristine and functionalized MXenes and their heterostructures against graphite, hard carbon, graphene, and related carbonaceous anodes across four progressively realistic levels: intrinsic material properties, synthesized materials, electrode/full-cell performance, and commercial-readiness criteria. Particular attention is given to the persistent gap between computational predictions and experimental performance arising from idealized models, surface terminations, restacking, oxidation, electrolyte compatibility, and material variability. Heterostructure engineering for improving ion accessibility, conductivity, structural stability, and interfacial behavior is also assessed. By identifying both the performance advantages and persistent commercial limitations of MXenes-based systems, this review establishes practical design considerations to translate MXene anodes from laboratory-scale promise toward viable battery technologies.