3D-Printed Triboelectric Nanogenerators: Materials, Challenges and Applications

Three-dimensional printing (3DP) or additive manufacturing (AM) technology offers a systematic solution for revolutionizing triboelectric nanogenerator (TENG) fabrication through multi-scale structural design and functional material integration. This review provides a systematic overview of the technological pathways, materials, challenges and core advancements in 3D-printed TENGs. The precise fabrication of TENG frameworks, molds, and functional components has been achieved primarily through fused deposition modeling (FDM) and direct ink writing (DIW). FDM constructs mechanically robust architectures using thermoplastic composites, while DIW develops high-performance devices through shear-thinning inks and multi-material co-extrusion strategies, including coaxial fibers and porous gel structures. Structural optimization and heterogeneous material integration provide routes to enhance triboelectric interfacial charge density and support adaptation to application environments through application-specific geometries, encapsulation/protective interfaces, and reduced direct environmental exposure of active TENG components. The incorporation of 4D-printed dynamic structures (e.g. shape-memory polymer origami, and mechanically buckling-guided pop-up devices) and hybrid energy harvesting systems coupling TENGs with electromagnetic generators (EMGs) or piezoelectric nanogenerators (PENGs) expands the application potential in broadband mechanical energy harvesting, adaptive sensing, and self-powered catalysis. We highlight that through innovative coordination of the material-structure-manufacturing-application chain, 3D-printed TENGs can become core technological enablers for distributed energy networks, intelligent Internet of Things (IoT) systems, and blue energy development, driving their large-scale implementation in smart manufacturing, flexible electronics, and environmental monitoring.