Rubber tree row management is diverse but poorly integrated with inter-row management in smallholder immature plantations in Thailand

Enhancing the productivity and sustainability of rubber-based cropping systems is essential to meet the growing demand for natural rubber while minimizing negative impacts. During the immature period, the 6–7 years between planting and the onset of tapping, farmers seek to promote rapid tree growth while minimizing tree mortality to maximize the number of tappable trees at maturity. Management practices are key to achieving these objectives, especially during the first four years before canopy closure. Young rubber trees are highly vulnerable to nutrient limitations and weed competition, while the open canopy also provides opportunities for crop diversification, potentially increasing competition for resources. Understanding how farmers manage these challenges is therefore essential. Although the diversity of inter-row management has been documented in various contexts, detailed studies on technical operations specifically applied to rubber tree rows and their relationship with inter-row management remain scarce. This study presents a detailed characterization of rubber row management based on 137 semi-structured interviews, focusing on the diversity of technical operations during the first four years of the immature period in both intercropped and mono-cropped rubber-based systems across three provinces in Thailand. We established a typology of technical operations in rubber rows and compared intensities of management between rubber rows and inter-rows, considering different crop choices and management strategies in the inter-rows. A wide range of rubber row management choices was observed, both across and within provinces. Seven clusters were distinguished along two gradients of intensification associated with fertilization and weed control. Temporal adjustments were found in rubber row management, without any consistent pattern of change from year one to year four after planting. On a plot scale, it was seen that rubber rows were mostly managed independently from inter-rows in terms of fertilization, while weed control operations tended to follow similar strategies across rows and inter-rows, regardless of the crop choice in the inter-rows. This study highlights the diversity of technical operations currently used to manage rubber tree rows during the immature period across different contexts in Thailand, aligning with previous findings on inter-row management. The results provide key insights for increasing the sustainability of rubber system management during the immature period, particularly by adopting a more integrated approach between rubber rows and inter-rows.