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By integrating a two‐stage analytical framework with dynamic analysis, undesirable outputs, and the meta‐frontier concept, this paper addresses key limitations of existing labor safety efficiency research, which has largely relied on single‐stage or static approaches and has often overlooked regional technological heterogeneity. The empirical results reveal significant disparities in labor safety efficiency across Taiwan's cities and counties. The overall average efficiency during 2017–2020 is 0.84, indicating an improvement potential of approximately 16%. With respect to labor education expenditure efficiency, 10 cities and counties are located on the efficiency frontier, while the remaining 12 fail to reach the optimal level.
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Lee et al. (2026) studied this question.
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