Spatial ecology, relative abundance and threats to the Indian pangolin (Manis crassicaudata) in Abbottabad District, Lesser Himalayas

The Indian pangolin ( Manis crassicaudata ) is an endangered and poorly studied mammal in Pakistan, where limited ecological information constrains effective conservation planning. This study assessed its spatial distribution, relative abundance, habitat characteristics, and anthropogenic pressures in Abbottabad District, Lesser Himalayas, Pakistan, from October 2024 to September 2025. A stratified, spatially explicit sampling framework comprised 30 intensively surveyed 2 × 2 km raster sampling units (RSUs), representing approximately 120 km² of landscape across four tehsils. Three 1-km belt transects were surveyed per RSU, providing 90 transects and 90 transect-km of standardized effort. Active living burrows were used as indirect indicators of current occurrence and relative abundance rather than individual population density. In total, 91 burrows were recorded, comprising 9 active living, 55 feeding, and 27 inactive burrows. The active burrows yielded a relative abundance index of 0.075 active burrows km⁻² of represented landscape and an encounter rate of 1.00 active burrows per 10 transect-km. Active burrows occurred between 700 and 1,361 m, primarily in low- to moderate-elevation scrub, agricultural-edge, and forest-transition habitats. Inactive and feeding burrows differed significantly in elevation, canopy cover, undergrowth density, distance to water, and burrow dimensions ( p < 0.05). Field observations and community information identified illegal hunting, habitat modification, agricultural expansion, domestic-dog interactions, and road mortality as conservation pressures. These findings establish a district-level ecological baseline for M. crassicaudata and support standardized long-term monitoring, targeted habitat management, threat mitigation, and community-based conservation.