Rethinking the means of self-regulation: a functional taxonomy from psychological skills to sex, drugs, and rock ’n’ roll

Self-regulation in sport and exercise is usually discussed in terms of aims, such as reducing anxiety, increasing readiness, accepting discomfort, or sustaining effort, and familiar strategies, such as self-talk, imagery, relaxation, or physical activity. Although many such strategies have been studied in separate literatures, they have rarely been organized explicitly as self-regulatory means: the routes through which regulation is enacted. Building on the Integrative Self-Regulation Model for Sport and Exercise, this conceptual article develops a pragmatic functional taxonomy of self-regulatory means across performance, training, recovery, and the wider life of athletes and exercisers. The taxonomy distinguishes mental control, behavioral, environmental, social, object-based, substance-based, and bundled means, while recognizing overlap and treating classification as exploratory, depending on the main ingredient doing the regulatory work rather than on assigning every practice to one correct category. The article reviews established examples, including psychological skills, exercise, social support, music, and caffeine, and considers less conventional, mundane, private, stigmatized, or risky means, such as prayer, daydreaming, toileting, masturbation, self-harm, nature exposure, partnered sex, digital objects, substances, and partying. The aim is not to endorse all such practices, but to make visible the diverse ways athletes and exercisers may already regulate themselves, including means that may be functional in the short term, costly over time, or important for safeguarding and referral. A means-based perspective can integrate diverse research and support applied self-regulation training by helping athletes and exercisers map repertoires, evaluate safety and sustainability, and expand flexible strategy selection.