Fungicide-induced developmental and reproductive toxicity in rodents: a systematic review and meta-analysis

Fungicides are extensively used in agriculture; however, growing evidence suggests potential adverse effects on reproductive and developmental processes in non-target organisms. This systematic review and meta-analysis aimed to evaluate maternal fungicide exposure effects on reproductive and fetal outcomes in rodent models. A systematic literature search from 2000 to 2024 was conducted in PubMed, Embase, Scopus, Web of Science, and ScienceDirect following PRISMA guidelines. Eligible studies assessed implantation, resorption, post-implantation loss, fetal viability, and congenital anomalies. Random-effects meta-analyses were performed using inverse-variance and Mantel–Haenszel methods. Fourteen studies were included. Fungicide exposure was associated with increased resorption rates and post-implantation loss, as well as a reduction in live fetuses. Meta-analytical estimates also demonstrated significantly increased risks for congenital anomalies, including external, visceral and skeletal malformations with consistent effects across multiple fungicide classes. Subgroup analyses indicated that the toxicity varied according to fungicide class, dose, and exposure duration, with triazole and imidazole compounds showing the most consistent adverse effects. Overall, the findings demonstrate that maternal fungicide exposure induces significant reproductive and developmental toxicity in rodents, supporting mechanisms involving endocrine disruption and embryotoxicity.