The Over-Worshiped Yang陽: Masculinized Cultivation Terminology and Titles in Daoist Female Alchemy and Contemporary Daoist Women’s Cultivation Communities

Drawing on an integrated framework of linguistics, comparative religion, and gender studies, this article examines masculinized cultivation terms in Daoist female alchemy (nüdan 女丹) such as “women change their bodies to become men” (nühuan nanti 女換男體) and “a true gentleman” (da zhangfu 大丈夫), as well as masculinized designations used by Daoist priestesses (kundao 坤道) in the contemporary Quanzhen (Complete Perfection 全真) community. Linguistically, such linguistic phenomena indicate a lack of religious terminology specifically used to refer to female practitioners and also reflect the asymmetry of the language system: masculine lexemes may be extended to refer to females, while feminine lexemes generally lack reciprocal applicability to males. From a comparative religious studies perspective, by conducting a comparative analysis of this phenomenon with similar instances of “women becoming men” in Buddhism and Christianity, it is argued that these phenomena indicate that, in religious practice, men are typically regarded as the embodiment of spiritual perfection. Based on the philosophy of cultivation in inner alchemy (neidan 內丹), this paper argues that the aforementioned phenomena indicate an excessive emphasis on the yang 陽 principle in neidan. To address this predicament, this study advances a theoretical pathway: contemporary practitioners of nüdan may revitalize devotion to the Queen Mother of the West (Xiwang mu 西王母). Regarded as the progenitor of female alchemy, Xiwang mu bears a dual sacred identity. Prior to the formation of the Daoist pantheon, she functioned as a cosmogonic goddess; after incorporation into the Daoist lineage, she is venerated as the Sovereign of Great Yin陰 (Taiyin Yuanjun 太陰元君), who governs primordial yin pneuma (qi 氣) and presides over female immortals. Her composite image encapsulates rich meanings of femininity. Reviving Xiwang mu devotion in modern female Daoist practice can help female practitioners awaken and nurture their distinctive feminine qualities and spiritual power through goddess veneration.