65,000 years of ochre processing and use at Madjedbebe, northern Australia

The emergence and dispersal of symbolic behaviour is central to understanding the global expansion of Homo sapiens . Although ochre use has deep roots in Africa, evidence for intensive pigment technologies accompanying early modern human dispersals is rare elsewhere. Here we report an extensive assemblage of ground ochre from Madjedbebe, northern Australia, spanning initial settlement of Sahul (~65 ka) to the recent past (<100 years). Six cultural phases (Phases 2–7) preserve 5941 ochre pieces weighing more than 46 kg, demonstrating sustained acquisition and processing from first occupation. Early inhabitants selected vibrant ochres, employed multiple powder-extraction techniques and apparently combined ochre with mica to produce reflective pigments. Hand stencils dated to at least 67.8 ka in Sulawesi provide complementary evidence for pigment-based symbolic expression along the dispersal corridor into Sahul. Together, these records suggest that the first Australians carried well-developed pigment traditions as part of a broader symbolic repertoire accompanying Homo sapiens across Island Southeast Asia.