The Advocacy Paradox: How Ngo Campaigns Reshape Palm Oil Policies While Alienating Oil Palm Smallholders

Non-governmental organisations (NGOs) have emerged as powerful actors in global environmental governance, particularly within the palm oil sector. Their campaigns against deforestation and human rights violations have significantly influenced the adoption of sustainability standards and regulatory reforms in key producer countries like Indonesia and Malaysia. However, growing evidence suggests that these advocacy efforts, while impactful at the policy level, may unintentionally marginalise oil palm smallholders. This study aims to critically examine how NGO-led interventions reshape palm oil policies and how such changes affect the inclusion, agency, and livelihood of smallholders. Utilising a qualitative literature review methodology, this research analysed over 80 peer-reviewed articles, policy reports, and NGO documents published between 2015 and 2025. Data were collected through systematic screening, thematic coding, and analytical synthesis, without relying on field observation or primary interviews. The findings reveal a persistent pattern: NGOs promote transnational sustainability norms such as RSPO and NDPE, which create compliance burdens that disproportionately disadvantage smallholders. Additionally, NGOs often frame sustainability through technocratic metrics that exclude local ecological knowledge and fail to represent grassroots voices in decision-making forums. The study concludes that while NGO campaigns have advanced global sustainability discourse, they risk reproducing structural inequalities in palm oil governance. Future research should explore participatory models that integrate smallholder perspectives and challenge existing power asymmetries in sustainability certification frameworks.