Evaluative Conditioning has a Vexing Demand Problem

Attitude research has long been concerned with the potential influence of demand characteristics in evaluative conditioning effects. Here, we argue that this concern remains justified and cannot be readily dismissed. This is supported by two observations. First, strategies used to rule out a demand account of evaluative conditioning effects have, if anything, supported rather than rejected it. Second, as we illustrate by discussing three recent studies that revisited this question, this investigation is empirically challenging. In the general discussion, we argue that a better understanding of demand effects can advance theorization and practice, and we discuss criteria that may help delineate demand from propositional and memory accounts of evaluative conditioning.