A Comparative Study on the Evolution of College Entrance Examination Systems in Mongolia, China, and Vietnam Since the 21st Century

In the 21st-century reforms of national university entrance examination systems, Mongolia, China, and Vietnam have all aimed to establish unified, fair, and efficient mechanisms for talent selection. While the three countries have jointly promoted exam standardization and institutional transparency, they differ significantly in institutional approaches and policy priorities. In terms of institutional design, China adopts a dual-track model combining national exams with provincial-level test-setting; Vietnam implements a "two-in-one" national examination that serves both graduation and admission purposes; Mongolia emphasizes centralized national test-setting and offers students the flexibility of taking the exam twice annually. Regarding equity mechanisms, China has developed a relatively comprehensive system of bonus points and support policies; Vietnam relies on tuition waivers and scholarship schemes; Mongolia mainly offers financial aid but lacks structured affirmative policies within the exam system itself. All three countries face persistent challenges related to regional and group disparities. Rural students, ethnic minorities, and marginalized populations often suffer from limited resources and lower academic performance under the unified examination systems. While private higher education has expanded rapidly across the three nations, regulatory frameworks have lagged behind. Private institutions now occupy a growing share of the education landscape but continue to struggle with issues of quality assurance and public credibility. Overall, the shared goal of the three countries' examination systems is to strike a dynamic balance between selection efficiency and educational equity. Future reforms must focus more systematically on resource allocation, equity mechanisms, and quality governance in higher education.