Internet access as a human right: insights from the empirical analysis of the UN international human rights framework*

One-third of the world's population remains offline in 2023, underscoring a growing consensus on the critical role of Internet connectivity in today's society. Drawing on extensive quantitative and qualitative analysis of over 2,800 recommendations issued by UN Treaty Bodies, Human Rights Council special procedures, and under the Universal Periodic Review from 2006 to 2024, this article examines the evolving discourse on Internet access within the international human rights system. While early discussions framed Internet access primarily through the lens of freedom of expression, our findings reveal a marked shift toward viewing it as an integral component of economic, social, and cultural rights. We show, however, that this shift is slower than the rapid corporate and governmental consolidation of digital power. Accordingly, we propose anchoring Internet access – at least as a derivative right – in Article 15 ICESCR and outline the related State obligations to respect, protect and fulfil.