Understanding effective citizenship education in special needs education: Comparing regular primary education with special needs primary education

Research conducted in regular primary education (RPE) identified aspects of effective citizenship education, such as the teacher–student relationship and an open classroom climate for discussion. In schools for special needs primary education (SNPE), such insight is missing. This study examined differences in citizenship competences between students attending SNPE vs. RPE and the moderating role of several characteristics of citizenship education. To do so, we conducted multilevel analyses based on 3782 students in 179 schools. Students in SNPE obtained lower scores on civic knowledge, self-estimated skills and attitude. Whereas the role of some characteristics was not as expected and asks for further research, this study shed light on several important factors, such as the attention for specific learning goals in citizenship education, that form an important basis for further research into characteristics of effective citizenship education in SNPE.