Beyond One-Size-Fits-All: A Working Memory Dependent Dual-Process Model of the Testing Effect

Existing literature illustrates that the benefits of testing in learning may not be universal. However, individual differences are largely neglected in theoretical explanations of the testing effect. The lack of individualized predictions concerning the testing effect presents a substantial challenge for educators. Here, we propose a novel working memory-dependent dual-process model to elucidate individual differences in the testing effect. This model posits that the testing effect comprises two interlinked processes: a retrieval-attempt process and a post-retrieval re-encoding process. Both processes consume working memory (WM) resources. Thus, the effectiveness of testing as a learning tool is contingent upon an individual's available WM resources and the WM demands of the task. We substantiate our model with behavioral and neuroimaging evidence. This model invites further research to analyze the potential trade-off between testing benefits and WM demands, facilitating the development of personalized educational practices.