A lost variation found: negotiations and research on international cooperation

International cooperation occurs after long periods of negotiation, but not every negotiation ends in cooperation outcomes. To date, International Political Economy (IPE) literature has not fully explored these negotiation variations. I suggest that researchers take a process-centered approach to better understand (non-)cooperation rather than look only at the cooperation outcomes. A process-centered approach enables researchers to examine the determinants of the negotiation process and alternative outcomes. This approach also helps uncover how the process may change domestic and international politics. I use trade negotiations to demonstrate negotiation variations and draw on relevant literature to discuss the strengths and weaknesses of process-centered and outcome-centered approaches. Relevant lessons from trade negotiations may shed light on other bargaining processes that bring about (non-)cooperation. While opening the black box of negotiations can be challenging, a process-centered approach advances our knowledge of international cooperation and bridges the gap between IPE research and the real world.