This synthesis article consolidates historical, theoretical, and practical insights into the evolving role of non-profit organizations in restrictive environments. It situates NGOs within global trajectories of philanthropy, mutual aid, and civic association while examining contemporary challenges of legitimacy, hybridity, and resilience. Integrating political science, sociology, and organizational theory, the analysis reveals how NGOs negotiate tensions between autonomy and dependency, professionalism and grassroots legitimacy, and advocacy and service delivery. The article highlights the structural paradoxes that define non-profits—simultaneously indispensable and constrained—and outlines future directions for research and practice. It calls for comparative studies, pluralistic approaches to impact measurement, and strategies for resilience amid crises such as climate change, pandemics, and digital repression. The conclusion envisions NGOs as adaptive actors whose future legitimacy will depend on their ability to integrate ethical commitments with innovative, participatory, and community-centered practices.
Anna Neya Kazanskaia (Wed,) studied this question.