How are mother’s and child’s connectedness to nature related? Indirect effects of mother–child engagement in pro-environmental activities and time spent in nature

Environmental factors play a significant role in shaping young children's connectedness to nature (CN). Among these factors, mothers, as primary caregivers, exert the most immediate influence on the development of children's CN. This study applies Ecological Systems Theory to examine how mothers' CN affects their children's CN, particularly through the indirect effects of mother–child engagement in pro-environmental activities and children's time spent in natural environments. Survey data from 229 mothers of five-year-old children were analyzed using structural equation modelling. Results revealed a positive association between mothers' and children's CN, with both mother–child engagement in pro-environmental activities and time spent in natural environments showing significant indirect effects on children's CN. These findings underscore the potential of mother-led pro-environmental activities and increased exposure to nature to strengthen psychological bonds with the natural world, thereby promoting children's environmental awareness and literacy.